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The brightest stellar explosion ever recorded may be a long-sought new type of supernova, according to observations by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and ground-based optical telescopes. This discovery indicates that violent explosions of extremely massive stars were relatively common in the early universe, and that a similar explosion may be ready to go off in our own galaxy.

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“This was a truly monstrous explosion, a hundred times more energetic than a typical supernova,” said Nathan Smith of the University of California at Berkeley, who led a team of astronomers from California and the University of Texas in Austin. “That means the star that exploded might have been as massive as a star can get, about 150 times that of our sun. We’ve never seen that before.”

Astronomers think many of the first generation of stars were this massive, and this new supernova may thus provide a rare glimpse of how the first stars died. It is unprecedented, however, to find such a massive star and witness its death. The discovery of the supernova, known as SN 2006gy, provides evidence that the death of such massive stars is fundamentally different from theoretical predictions.

Godzilla vs. Megalon video Barbarella trailer Open Range download Ring of Death divx “Of all exploding stars ever observed, this was the king,” said Alex Filippenko, leader of the ground-based observations at the Lick Observatory at Mt. Hamilton, Calif., and the Keck Observatory in Mauna Kea, Hawaii. “We were astonished to see how bright it got, and how long it lasted.”

The Chandra observation allowed the team to rule out the most likely alternative explanation for the supernova: that a white dwarf star with a mass only slightly higher than the sun exploded into a dense, hydrogen-rich environment. In that event, SN 2006gy should have been 1,000 times brighter in X-rays than what Chandra detected.

“This provides strong evidence that SN 2006gy was, in fact, the death of an extremely massive star,” said Dave Pooley of the University of California at Berkeley, who led the Chandra observations.

The star that produced SN 2006gy apparently expelled a large amount of mass prior to exploding. This large mass loss is similar to that seen from Eta Carinae, a massive star in our galaxy, raising suspicion that Eta Carinae may be poised to explode as a supernova. Although SN 2006gy is intrinsically the brightest supernova ever, it is in the galaxy NGC 1260, some 240 million light years away. However, Eta Carinae is only about 7,500 light years away in our own Milky Way galaxy.

“We don’t know for sure if Eta Carinae will explode soon, but we had better keep a close eye on it just in case,” said Mario Livio of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, who was not involved in the research. “Eta Carinae’s explosion could be the best star-show in the history of modern civilization.”

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Supernovas usually occur when massive stars exhaust their fuel and collapse under their own gravity. In the case of SN 2006gy, astronomers think that a very different effect may have triggered the explosion. Under some conditions, the core of a massive star produces so much gamma ray radiation that some of the energy from the radiation converts into particle and anti-particle pairs. The resulting drop in energy causes the star to collapse under its own huge gravity.

After this violent collapse, runaway thermonuclear reactions ensue and the star explodes, spewing the remains into space. The SN 2006gy data suggest that spectacular supernovas from the first stars – rather than completely collapsing to a black hole as theorized – may be more common than previously believed.

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Demonsamongus psp “In terms of the effect on the early universe, there’s a huge difference between these two possibilities,” said Smith. “One pollutes the galaxy with large quantities of newly made elements and the other locks them up forever in a black hole.”

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The results from Smith and his colleagues will appear in The Astrophysical Journal. NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for the agency’s Science Mission Directorate. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass. Additional information and images are available at:

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Now astrophysicists at The University of Arizona, Los Alamos National Laboratory and the University of Adelaide (Australia) have discovered a mechanism that might produce these high-energy gamma rays. The black hole at the center of our Milky Way could be working like a cosmic particle accelerator, revving up protons that smash at incredible speeds into lower energy protons and creating high-energy gamma rays, they report.

“It’s similar to the same kind of particle physics experiments that the Large Hadron Collider being built at CERN will perform,” UA astrophysicist David Ballantyne said.

When complete, the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland will be able to accelerate protons to seven trillion electronvolts. Our galaxy’s black hole whips protons to energies as much as 100 trillion electronvolts, according to the team’s new study. That’s all the more impressive because “Our black hole is pretty inactive compared to massive black holes sitting in other galaxies,” Ballantyne noted.

Ballantyne collaborated with UA astrophysics Professor Fulvio Melia in the new study published in Astrophysical Journal Letters.

For the last several years, Melia has been developing a theory of what may be going on very close to the Milky Way’s black hole. Melia and his group find that powerful, chaotic magnetic fields accelerate protons and other particles near the black hole to extremely high energies.

“Our galaxy’s central supermassive object has been a constant source of surprise ever since it’s discovery some 30 years ago,” Melia said. “Slowly but surely it has become the best studied and most compelling black hole in the universe. Now we’re even finding that its apparent quietness over much of the spectrum belies the real power it generates a mere breath above its event horizon—the point of no return.”

The Milky Way black hole “is one of the most energetic particle accelerators in the galaxy, but it does this by proxy, by cajoling the magnetized plasma haplessly trapped within its clutches into slinging protons to unearthly speeds,” Melia said.

Ballantyne used detailed, realistic maps of interstellar gas extending 10 light years beyond the black hole in modeling whether accelerated protons launched from the galactic center would produce gamma rays.

“We calculated very exactly how the protons would travel in this medium, taking into account specifically the magnetic force that changes the protons’ trajectories,” he said. The team calculated 222,000 proton trajectories for a statistically solid study.

Even though the protons move close to the speed of light, their motion is so random that it takes several thousand years for the particles to travel beyond 10 light years of the black hole. After the high-energy protons escape the black hole environment, they fly off into the interstellar medium, where they collide with low-energy protons (hydrogen gas) in a smash-up so energetic that particles called ‘pions’ form. These particles of matter quickly decay into high-energy gamma rays that, like other radiation, travel in all directions.

Ballantyne, Melia and and their colleagues found that this process can explain the energy spectrum and brightness of gamma-ray emission that astronomers observe. Researchers detect the high-energy gamma-ray emission with ground-based telescopes at Namibia, Africa, at Whipple Observatory in southeastern Arizona, and elsewhere.

“Ironically, even though our galaxy’s central black hole does not itself abundantly eject hyper-relativistic plasma into the surrounding medium, this discovery may indirectly explain how the most powerful black holes in the universe, including quasars, produce their enormous jets extending over intergalactic proportions. The same particle slinging almost certainly occurs in all black-hole systems, though with much greater power earlier in the universe,” Melia said.

Only 31 percent of the 222,000 proton trajectories in their sample produced gamma rays within 10 light years of the black hole, Ballantyne said. The other 69 percent escape to greater distances, where presumably they, too, will interact in gamma ray-generating collisions.

“Astronomers do, indeed, observe a glow of very-high energy gamma-rays from the inner regions of the galaxy,” Ballantyne said. “It’s possible that this emission is also caused by protons accelerated close to the central black hole.”

Ballantyne holds UA’s Theoretical Astrophysics Program Prize Postdoctoral Fellowship. The university’s Theoretical Astrophysics Program, organized in 1985, is an interdisciplinary program of the UA departments of physics, astronomy and planetary sciences.

From University of Arizona

The instrument, called Urey: Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector, has already shown its capabilities in one of the most barren climes on Earth, the Atacama Desert in Chile. The European Space Agency has chosen this tool from the United States as part of the science payload for the ExoMars rover planned for launch in 2013. Last month, NASA selected Urey for an instrument-development investment of $750,000.

The European Space Agency plans for the ExoMars rover to grind samples of Martian soil to fine powder and deliver them to a suite of analytical instruments, including Urey, that will search for signs of life. Each sample will be a spoonful of material dug from underground by a robotic drill.

“Urey will be able to detect key molecules associated with life at a sensitivity roughly a million times greater than previous instrumentation,” said Dr. Jeffrey Bada of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego. Bada is the principal investigator for an international team of scientists and engineers working on various components of the device.

To aid in interpreting that information, part of the tool would assess how rapidly the environmental conditions on Mars erase those molecular clues.

Dr. Pascale Ehrenfreund of the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, said, “The main objective of ExoMars is to search for life. Urey will be a key instrument for that because it is the one with the highest sensitivity for organic chemicals.” Ehrenfreund, one of two deputy principal investigators for Urey, coordinates efforts of team members from five other European countries.

Urey can detect several types of organic molecules, such as amino acids, at concentrations as low as a few parts per trillion.

All life on Earth assembles chains of amino acids to make proteins. However, amino acids can be made either by a living organism or by non-biological means. This means it is possible that Mars has amino acids and other chemical precursors of life but has never had life. To distinguish between that situation and evidence for past or present life on Mars, the Urey instrument team will make use of the knowledge that most types of amino acids can exist in two different forms. One form is referred to as “left-handed” and the other as “right-handed.” Just as the right hand on a human mirrors the left, these two forms of an amino acid mirror each other.

Amino acids from a non-biological source come in a roughly 50-50 mix of right-handed and left-handed forms. Life on Earth, from the simplest microbes to the largest plants and animals, makes and uses only left-handed amino acids, with rare exceptions. Comparable uniformity — either all left or all right — is expected in any extraterrestrial life using building blocks that have mirror-image versions because a mixture would complicate biochemistry.

“The Urey instrument will be able to distinguish between left-handed amino acids and right-handed ones,” said Allen Farrington, Urey project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which will build the instrument to be sent to Mars.

If Urey were to find an even mix of the mirror-image molecules on Mars, that would suggest life as we know it never began there. All-left or all-right would be strong evidence that life now exists on Mars, with all-right dramatically implying an origin separate from Earth life. Something between 50-50 and uniformity could result if Martian life once existed, because amino acids created biologically gradually change toward an even mixture in the absence of life.

The 1976 NASA Viking mission discovered that strongly oxidizing conditions at the Martian surface complicate experiments to search for life. The Urey instrument has a component, called the Mars oxidant instrument, for examining those conditions.

Switzerland will provide electronics design and packaging expertise for Urey. Micro-Cameras and Space Exploration S.A., Neuchatel, will collaborate with JPL and the European Space Agency to accomplish this significant contribution to the heart of the instrument. Dr. Jean-Luc Josset, Urey co-investigator at the University of Neuchatel will coordinate this effort and help provide detector selection and support. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.

From NASA

Now, a century later, NASA’s Galaxy Evolution Explorer is helping piece together the evolution of these cosmic species. Since its launch in 2003, the mission has surveyed tens of thousands of galaxies in ultraviolet light across nine billion years of time. The results provide new, comprehensive evidence for the “nurture” theory of galaxy evolution, which holds that the galaxies first described by Hubble – the elegant spirals and blob-like ellipticals — are evolutionarily linked.

According to this “nurture” theory, a typical young galaxy begins life as a spiral that is actively churning out stars. Over time, the spiral might merge with another spiral or perhaps an irregular-shaped galaxy, before kicking out a few more bursts of newly minted stars. Eventually, the galaxy slows down its production of stars and settles into later life as an elliptical.

“Our data confirm that all galaxies begin life forming stars,” said Chris Martin, the principal investigator for the Galaxy Evolution Explorer at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif. “Then through a combination of mergers, fuel exhaustion and perhaps suppression by black holes, the galaxies eventually stop producing stars.”

When astronomers talk about galaxies today, they tend to refer to them by their color, either blue or red, instead of by their shape. Most blue galaxies are smaller spirals or irregulars, and most red galaxies are larger ellipticals, though there are some exceptions.

Why color-code the galaxies? Their color indicates how actively they are making new stars. Younger stars shine in ultraviolet or blue light, so galaxies that appear blue are busily producing stars. Older stars emit infrared or red light, so galaxies that look red have shut down their star-making factories. Roughly half of all galaxies are blue and half are red.

Scientists have long postulated that blue galaxies grow up to become red. They proposed that something happens to the blue galaxies to cause them to run out of star-making material, or gas, and mature into the passive red ones. For this “nurture” theory to be true, there should be a population of “teenage” galaxies in the process of transitioning from blue to red, or young to old. But such a cosmic metamorphosis should take billions of years. How can astronomers, with a significantly shorter lifespan, study a process that takes that long?

One solution is to look at lots and lots of galaxies. Imagine a hypothetical alien trying to figure out how and if humans age from only a handful of snapshots showing people of different ages. The aliens might assume that little people grow into big ones, but they could better piece together the life of a typical human if they could look through boxes and boxes of photographs.

The Galaxy Evolution Explorer was designed to provide astronomers with just such a massive portfolio of galaxies. Its troves of data have allowed scientists to find a significant number of teenage galaxies – and thus proof that youthful spiral, or blue, galaxies will eventually grow up to become the elderly elliptical, or red, galaxies.

“The nurture theory of galaxy evolution predicted that there would be galaxies in transition,” said Martin. “Finding these galaxies required ultraviolet light, because they really stand out at this wavelength. And because they are rare, we had to look at many. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer allowed us to do this.”

Visible-light data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey also helped to establish the age of the teenage galaxies and the rates at which they are running out of star-making fuel. These findings suggest that some of the young galaxies are ripening into old age quickly, while others are leisurely strolling into their golden years.

Evidence for the “nurture” theory of galaxy evolution can be found in a report in the Astrophysical Journal. Martin is the lead author.

“This is an amazing surprise,” said Spitzer project scientist Dr. Michael Werner of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. “We had no idea when we designed Spitzer that it would make such a dramatic step in characterizing exoplanets.”

Spitzer, a space-based infrared telescope, obtained the detailed data, called spectra, for two different gas exoplanets. Called HD 209458b and HD 189733b, these so-called “hot Jupiters” are, like Jupiter, made of gas, but orbit much closer to their suns.

The data indicate the two planets are drier and cloudier than predicted. Theorists thought hot Jupiters would have lots of water in their atmospheres, but surprisingly none was found around HD 209458b and HD 189733b. According to astronomers, the water might be present but buried under a thick blanket of high, waterless clouds.

Those clouds might be filled with dust. One of the planets, HD 209458b, showed hints of tiny sand grains, called silicates, in its atmosphere. This could mean the planet’s skies are filled with high, dusty clouds unlike anything seen around planets in our own solar system.

“The theorists’ heads were spinning when they saw the data,” said Dr. Jeremy Richardson of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.

“It is virtually impossible for water, in the form of vapor, to be absent from the planet, so it must be hidden, probably by the dusty cloud layer we detected in our spectrum,” he said. Richardson is lead author of a Nature paper appearing Feb. 22 that describes a spectrum for HD 209458b.

In addition to Richardson’s team, two other groups of astronomers used Spitzer to capture spectra of exoplanets. A team led by Dr. Carl Grillmair of NASA’s Spitzer Science Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif., observed HD 189733b, while a team led by Dr. Mark R. Swain of JPL focused on the same planet in the Richardson study, and came up with similar results. Grillmair’s results will be published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters. Swain’s findings have been submitted to the Astrophysical Journal Letters.

A spectrum is created when an instrument called a spectrograph splits light from an object into its different wavelengths, just as a prism turns sunlight into a rainbow. The resulting pattern of light, the spectrum, reveals “fingerprints” of chemicals making up the object.

Until now, the only planets for which spectra were available belonged in our own solar system. The planets in the Spitzer studies orbit stars that are so far away, they are too faint to be seen with the naked eye. HD 189733b is 370 trillion miles away in the constellation Vulpecula, and HD 209458b is 904 trillion miles away in the constellation Pegasus. That means both planets are at least about a million times farther away from us than Jupiter. In the future, astronomers hope to have spectra for smaller, rocky planets beyond our solar system. This would allow them to look for the footprints of life — molecules key to the existence of life, such as oxygen and possibly even chlorophyll.

“With these new observations, we are refining the tools that we will one day need to find life elsewhere if it exists,” said Swain. “It’s sort of like a dress rehearsal.”

Spitzer was able to tease out spectra from the feeble light of the two planets through what is known as the “secondary eclipse” technique. In this method — first used by Spitzer in 2005 to directly detect the light from an exoplanet for the first time ( http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/releases/ssc2005-09/index.shtml ) — a so-called transiting planet is monitored as it circles behind its star, temporarily disappearing from our Earthly point of view. By measuring the dip in infrared light that occurs when the planet disappears, Spitzer can learn how much light is coming solely from the planet. The technique will work only in infrared wavelengths, where the planet is brighter than in visible wavelengths and stands out better next to the overwhelming glare of its star.

In the new studies, Spitzer’s spectrograph, which measures infrared light at a range of wavelengths, stared at the two transiting planets as they orbited their stars. This allowed the astronomers to subtract the spectra of the stars from the spectra of the planets plus their stars to obtain spectra of the planets alone.

“When we first set out to make these observations, they were considered high risk because not many people thought they would work,” said Grillmair. “But Spitzer has turned out to be superbly designed and more than up to the task.”

Previous observations of HD 209458b by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope revealed individual elements, such as sodium, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, that bounce around the very top of the planet, a region higher up than that probed in the Spitzer studies and a region where molecules like water would break apart. To do this, Hubble measured changes in the light from the star, not the planet, as the planet passed in front. The observations indicated less sodium than predicted, which again supports the idea that the planet is socked in with high clouds.

Astronomers hope to use Spitzer for additional studies of transiting exoplanets, which are those that cross in front of their stars from our point of view. Of the approximately 200 known exoplanets, 14 are transiting. At least three of these in addition to HD 209458b and HD 189733b are candidates for obtaining spectra. Further spectral studies of HD 209458b and HD 189733b will also yield more information about the planets’ atmospheres.

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., manages the Spitzer Space Telescope mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington. Science operations are conducted at the Spitzer Science Center at the California Institute of Technology, also in Pasadena. Caltech manages JPL for NASA. Spitzer’s infrared spectrograph was built by Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Its development was led by Dr. Jim Houck of Cornell.

For artist’s concepts and more information, visit http://www.nasa.gov/spitzer and www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media

The online archives, which will be updated as new cases are reported, catalogues in minute detail cases ranging from the easily dismissed to a handful that continue to perplex even hard-nosed scientists.

“It is a world first,” said Jacques Patenet, the aeronautical engineer who heads the office for the study of “non-identified aerospatial phenomena.”

Known as OVNIs in French, UFOs have always generated intense interest along with countless conspiracy theories about secretive government cover-ups of findings deemed too sensitive or alarming for public consumption.

“Cases such as the lady who reported seeing an object that looked like a flying roll of toilet paper” are clearly not worth investigating, said Patenet.

But many others involving multiple sightings — in at least one case involving thousands of people across France — and evidence such as burn marks and radar trackings showing flight patterns or accelerations that defy the laws of physics are taken very seriously.

A phalanx of beefy security guards formed a barrier in front of the space agency (CNES) headquarters where the announcement was made, “to screen out uninvited UFOlogists,” an official explained.

Of the 1,600 cases registered since 1954, nearly 25 percent are classified as “type D”, meaning that “despite good or very good data and credible witnesses, we are confronted with something we can’t explain,” Patenet said.

On January 8, 1981 outside the town of Trans-en-Provence in southern France, for example, a man working in a field reported hearing a strange whistling sound and seeing a saucer-like object about 2.5 meters (eight feet) in diameter land in his field about 50 meters (yards) away.

A dull-zinc grey, the saucer took off, he told police, almost immediately, leaving burn marks. Investigators took photos, and then collected and analyzed samples, and to this day no satisfactory explanation has been made.

The nearly 1,000 witness who said they saw flashing lights in the sky on November 5, 1990, by contrast, had simply seen a rocket fragment falling back into earth’s atmosphere.

Patenet’s answer to questions about evidence of life beyond Earth was sure to inflame the suspicions of those convinced the government is holding back: “We do not have the least proof that extra-terrestrials are behind the unexplained phenomena.”

But then he added: “Nor do we have the least proof that they aren’t.”

The CNES fields between 50 and 100 UFO reports ever year, usually written up by police. Of these, 10 percent are the object of on-site investigations, Patenet said.

Other countries collect data more or less systematically about unidentified flying objects, notably in Britain and in the United States, where information can be requested on a case-by-case basis under the Freedom of Information Act.

“But we decided to do it the other way around and made everything available to the public,” Patenet said.

The aim was to make it easier for scientists and other UFO buffs to access the data for research.

The website itself — which crashed host servers hours after it was unveiled due to heavy traffic — is extremely well organized and complete, even including scanned copies of police reports.

To visit the website: www.cnes-geipan.fr.

For nearly a month, a series of severe Martian summer dust storms has affected the rover Opportunity and, to a lesser extent, its companion, Spirit. The dust in the Martian atmosphere over Opportunity has blocked 99 percent of direct sunlight to the rover, leaving only the limited diffuse sky light to power it. Scientists fear the storms might continue for several days, if not weeks.

“We’re rooting for our rovers to survive these storms, but they were never designed for conditions this intense,” said Alan Stern, associate administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington.

If the sunlight is further cut back for an extended period, the rovers will not be able to generate enough power to keep themselves warm and operate at all, even in a near-dormant state. The rovers use electric heaters to keep some of their vital core electronics from becoming too cold.

Before the dust storms began blocking sunlight last month, Opportunity’s solar panels had been producing about 700 watt hours of electricity per day, enough to light a 100-watt bulb for seven hours. When dust in the air reduced the panels’ daily output to less than 400 watt hours, the rover team suspended driving and most observations, including use of the robotic arm, cameras and spectrometers to study the site where Opportunity is located.

On Tuesday, July 17, the output from Opportunity’s solar panels dropped to 148 watt hours, the lowest point for either rover. On Wednesday, Opportunity’s solar-panel output dropped even lower, to 128 watt hours.

NASA engineers are taking proactive measures to protect the rovers, especially Opportunity, which is experiencing the brunt of the dust storm. The rovers are showing robust survival characteristics. Spirit, in a location where the storm is currently less severe, has been instructed to conserve battery power by limiting its activities.

“We are taking more aggressive action with both rovers than we needed before,” said John Callas, project manager for the twin rovers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.

By Opportunity’s 1,236th Martian day, which ended Tuesday, driving and all science observations had already been suspended. The rover still used more energy than its solar panels could generate on that day, drawing down its battery. “The only thing left to cut were some of the communication sessions,” Callas said.

To minimize further the amount of energy Opportunity is using, mission controllers sent commands on Wednesday, July 18, instructing the rover to refrain from communicating with Earth on Thursday and Friday. This is the first time either of the rovers has been told to skip communications for a day or more in order to conserve energy. Engineers calculate that skipping communications sessions should lower daily energy use to less than 130 watt hours.

A possible outcome of this storm is that one or both rovers could be damaged permanently or even disabled. Engineers will assess the capability of each rover after the storm clears.

NASA will provide mission updates as events warrant. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory manages the rover project for the Science Mission Directorate.

For more information about the rovers, visit:

From http://www.nasa.gov/rovers

“We detected the 60th moon orbiting Saturn using the Cassini spacecraft’s powerful wide-angle camera,” said Carl Murray, a Cassini imaging team scientist from Queen Mary, University of London. “I was looking at images of the region near the Saturnian moons Methone and Pallene and something caught my eye.”

The newly discovered moon first appeared as a very faint dot in a series of images Cassini took of the Saturnian ring system on May 30 of this year. After the initial detection, Murray and fellow Cassini imaging scientists played interplanetary detective, searching for clues of the new moon in the voluminous library of Cassini images to date.

The Cassini imaging team’s legwork paid off. They were able to locate numerous additional detections, spanning from June 2004 to June 2007. “With these new data sets we were able to establish a good orbit for the new moon,” said Murray. “Knowing where the moons are at all times is important to the Cassini mission for several reasons.”

One of the most important reasons for Cassini to chronicle these previously unknown space rocks is so the spacecraft itself does not run into them. Another reason is each discovery helps provide a better understanding about how Saturn’s ring system and all its billions upon billions of parts work and interact together. Finally, a discovery of a moon is important because with this new knowledge, the Cassini mission planners and science team can plan to perform science experiments during future observations if and when the opportunity presents itself.

What of this new, 60th discovered moon of Saturn? Cassini scientists believe “Frank” (the working name for the moon until another, perhaps, more appropriate one is found) is about 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) wide and, like so many of its neighbors, is made mostly of ice and rock. The moon’s location in the Saturnian sky is between the orbits of Methone and Pallene. It is the fifth moon discovered by the Cassini imaging team.

“When the Cassini mission launched back in 1997, we knew of only 18 moons orbiting Saturn,” said Murray. “Now, between Earth-based telescopes and Cassini we have more than tripled that number – and each and every new discovery adds another piece to the puzzle and becomes another new world to explore.”

Murray and his colleagues may get the chance to explore Saturn’s 60th moon. The Cassini spacecraft’s trajectory will put it within 7,300 miles (11,700 kilometers) in December of 2009.

The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif., manages the Cassini-Huygens mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.

From http://www.fda.gov

“Recent developments in cosmology have irreversibly changed our understanding of the structure and fate of our universe and of our own place in it,” says Linde, who will discuss the inflationary view of the universe at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on Feb. 18 in San Francisco.

In the same session, titled “Multiverses, Dark Energy and Physics as an Environmental Science,” physics Professor Leonard Susskind of Stanford will talk about string theory and its relation to inflationary theory and physics Professor Lawrence Krauss of Case Western Reserve University will represent the skeptic view.

The conventional theory of the Big Bang says that the newborn universe was huge, containing more than 10^80 [ten raised to the power of eighty] tons of matter. But physicists were stumped for an explanation of where all this matter came from. Inflationary theory solves this problem by showing how our universe could emerge from less than a milligram of matter, or perhaps even from literally nothing.

From the Big Bang theory to inflation

Physicist Alan Guth of MIT proposed the inflationary theory in 1981, but its original version did not work until Linde improved it. Guth and Linde realized that rather than expanding at an ever-decreasing rate, as was predicted by the Big Bang theory, the universe could have inflated at exponentially rapid speeds.

Just as a landscape is diverse with peaks and valleys, quantum fluctuations in the fabric of space-time form an energetic landscape. The energy driving expansion of the universe, Linde explained, is a bit like a ball rolling around a bowl. As the ball rolls down the side of the bowl, the intensity of quantum fluctuations decreases until it reaches the stable point at the bottom. The heat created by these oscillations at the bottom of the bowl is what caused the Big Bang, and the preceding stage of inflation is what made the bang so incredibly big, Linde said.

“Quantum events are taking place all around us,” he said. “They are very, very small.” Some of these small quantum events caught up in the process of rapid expansion of space became galaxies along the way.

“If galaxies are the result of quantum fluctuations,” said Linde with a shrug, “imagine what we are.”

‘An unexpected gift’ from string theory

The possibility that enormously large galaxies originated from tiny quantum fluctuations may seem too strange to be true. But many aspects of inflationary theory were confirmed by recent astronomical observations, for which the observers won the Nobel Prize in 2006. This gives some credence to an even more surprising claim made by Linde: During inflation, quantum fluctuations can produce not only galaxies, but also new parts of the universe.

Take an expanding universe with its little pockets of heterogeneous quantum events. At some point one of those random events may actually “escape” from its parent universe, forming a new one, Linde said. To use the ball analogy, if it experiences small perturbations as it rolls, it might at some point roll over into the next valley, initiating a new inflationary process, he said.

“The string theorists predict that there are perhaps 10^1,000 [ten raised to the power of one thousand] different types of universes that can be formed that way,” Linde said. “I had known that there must be many different kinds of universes with different physical properties, but this huge number of different possibilities was an unexpected gift of string theory.”

According to string theory, there are ten dimensions. We live aware of four of them-three of space plus one of time. The rest are so small that we cannot experience them directly. In 2003, Stanford physicists Shamit Kachru, Renata Kallosh and Andrei Linde, with their collaborator Sandip Trivedi from India, discovered that these compacted dimensions want to expand, but that the time it would take for them to do so is beyond human comprehension. When a new universe buds off from its parent, the configuration of which dimensions remain small and which grow large determines the physical laws of that universe. In other words, an infinite number of worlds could exist with 10^1,000 different types of physical laws operating among them. Susskind called this picture “the string theory landscape.”

For many physicists, it is disturbing to think that the very laws and properties that are the essence of our world might only hold true as long as we remain in that world. “We always wanted to discover the theory of everything that would explain the unique properties of our world, and now we must adjust to the thought that many different worlds are possible,” Linde said. But he sees an advantage in what some others could see as a problem: “We finally learned that the inflationary universe is not just a free lunch: It is an eternal feast where all possible dishes are served.”

From Stanford University

Jeffrey Adams, project leader and mathematics professor at the University of Maryland said E8 was discovered over a century ago, in 1887, and until now, no one thought the structure could ever be understood.

“This groundbreaking achievement is significant both as an advance in basic knowledge, as well as a major advance in the use of large scale computing to solve complicated mathematical problems,” Adams said.

He added that the mapping of E8 may well have unforeseen implications in mathematics and physics which won’t be evident for years to come.

E8 belongs to so-called Lie groups that were invented by a 19th century Norwegian mathematician, Sophus Lie, to study symmetry.

The theory holds that underlying any symmetrical object, such as a sphere, is a Lie group.

Balls, cylinders or cones are familiar examples of symmetric three-dimensional objects.

However, mathematicians study symmetries in higher dimensions. In fact, E8 itself is 248-dimensional.

Today string theorists search for a theory of the universe by looking at E8 X E8.

While the human genome, which contains all the genetic information of a cell, is less than a gigabyte in size, the result of the E8 calculation, which contains all the information about E8, is 60 gigabytes in size, they said.

This is enough to store 45 days of continuous music in MP3-format. If written out on paper, the answer would cover an area the size of Manhattan.

From Forward Unlimited